Oriental Imprints: The Middle Eastern Influence on Shaping Southeast Asian Civilizations

By Muhammad Rumi Azhari Nur Irfani

Southeast Asia, with its vibrant colors of cultural influences, presents a unique study in the interplay of diverse historical and social forces. Despite the geographical distance separating the region from the Middle East, the cultural elements of Southeast Asia echo Middle Eastern influences in many ways. These parallels manifest in various domains, including philosophy, religion, ethics, and art. Given such extensive overlaps, a pertinent question arises: How did such a geographically distant region come to bear the imprint of Middle Eastern culture so distinctly? Unraveling this question requires a historical, anthropological, and psychological exploration of the influences that have shaped Southeast Asia’s cultural identity.

Historically, Southeast Asia and the Middle East’s cultural identities were shaped by their thriving trade networks. The Spice Route, active between the 7th and 10th centuries A.D., was a vital conduit for sharing commodities, ideologies, beliefs, and traditions. Middle Eastern traders, acting as cultural emissaries, significantly influenced Southeast Asia’s coastal regions. This cultural exchange deepened with the rise of Muslim traders, notably the Bugis and Malay, in the 18th century. Their wide-reaching trade networks amplified the spread of Islam and Arabian influence. Further, mid-18th century immigrants from Hadhramaut—a culturally rich region in Yemen—strengthened the Middle Eastern influence on Southeast Asia’s culture, introducing their distinct religious and cultural practices to the region (Shimada, 2019). 

Franz Boas’ Diffusion Theory sheds light on this cultural interplay. It suggests cultural traits can transfer from one society to another, rather than being solely indigenous. Coastal societies in Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia, didn’t just receive these traits passively. They adapted them to their social structures, a process fostered by ongoing contact with traders (Boas, 2015). Consequently, this didn’t just lead to the adoption of certain Middle Eastern customs or practices; it also led to a significant transformation in societal norms, ethical frameworks, and religious orientations. This widespread cultural diffusion effectively restructured the social fabric of these societies, setting the foundation for a cultural legacy that continues to shape their identity.

Another notable aspect of this cultural interchange is the adoption of Middle Eastern philosophies, particularly Islam, in Southeast Asia. The region was no stranger to foreign philosophies, with the teachings of Chinese Confucianism and Budhism, along with Indian Hinduism, already ingrained in various societies. Despite this, Islam carved out its niche within these coastal communities. Theory of Confirmation Bias might be a suitable explanation of this phenomenon. According to this theory, new information that aligns with existing beliefs or offers a simpler understanding is more readily assimilated (Draper & Nichols, 2013; Fernandes, 2023; Nickerson, 1998; Ruzzier & Woo, 2023). In this light, the straightforward socio-political tenets of Islam might have seemed less complex compared to the metaphysical nuances of Indian and Chinese philosophies. This could account for why Islam resonated so strongly with the local populace, leading to the establishment of numerous Sultanates in Southeast Asia.

Despite the significant cultural assimilation along the coastal regions, the transition was not without its complexities. As Islamic influences permeated the region, particularly in nations like Thailand, the inland areas witnessed protracted conflicts. The expansion of Islamic Sultanates into these territories often clashed with the existing non-Muslim kingdoms, causing wars that spanned centuries. A clear example is the intermittent conflicts between the Sultanate of Malacca, a prominent maritime Islamic kingdom in the 15th century, and the Kingdom of Ayutthaya in present-day Thailand. These disputes were not merely about territorial expansion but reflected deeper cultural differences and resistance against the adoption of Middle Eastern philosophies (Ann Kordas et al., 2022; Chris Quan, 2022; Joll, 2012).

These policies served as shields against cultural changes from the coast, helping these kingdoms retain their identities. Geography also played a role, protecting them from direct Middle Eastern influence. Today, this past is visible in their culture. For instance, Thailand remains Buddhist despite being between Muslim-majority Malaysia and Indonesia. Similarly, Cambodia, Laos, and parts of Vietnam have kept their unique blend of Theravada Buddhism and local traditions (Von Der Mehden, 1980). These kingdoms, fortified by their geopolitical locations, were somewhat insulated from the cultural changes sweeping the coastal areas, allowing them to preserve their unique identities. This divergence in cultural evolution has led to the coexistence of Islamic and non-Islamic traditions in Southeast Asia, a testament to the region’s diversity.

As the region evolved socio-politically, the Middle Eastern influence remained pervasive, shaping various aspects of Southeast Asian civilizations. However, the pace of cultural assimilation varied, slowing down as societies became more aware and proud of their unique identities. According to the study by Abramitzky et al. (2020), it is argued that the rate of cultural conversion nowadays are slower compared to the past decades. In modern times, while Southeast Asian nations actively engage in global dialogues, they still strive to maintain their distinct cultural identities. This would explain the reason of why at the present, the transformation of cultural and philosophical affinity is not prevalent as it was before the modern times.

The vibrant cultural realm of Southeast Asia, woven with threads of Middle Eastern influence, is an enduring testament to centuries-old trade networks and the spread of philosophies like Islam. Such exchanges have indelibly shaped Southeast Asia, from its coastal societies—altered by their interactions with traders—to its inland areas, which retained unique identities. Today, the region stands as a diverse meld of traditions, beliefs, and practices. Despite a slow-down in cultural assimilation due to modern times, this interconnected heritage continues to shape the area’s future. Thus, Southeast Asia’s narrative underscores the profound, transformative power of cultural exchange and the lasting bonds it forms, transcending both time and distance.

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